1902 Egypt's Aswan Dam, built by the
British, opens.
1902-1932 Wahhabi leader Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud
recaptures a major city in Saudi Arabia, beginning a 30-year campaign to unify
the Arabian Peninsula.
1905 Ottoman-controlled Northern Yemen
and British-controlled Southern Yemen are officially divided (Violet Line). To
be united in 1990
1906 Persia's Constitutional Revolution
forces the ruler of Muzaffar al-Din Shah to accept Persia's first constitution.
The Revolution aims to make the state leader accountable to a
written code of law, thereby limiting royal power and lessening corruption. The constitution also calls for the establishment of the Majlis (elected parliament).
1907 Muzaffar al-Din Shah, who had become
Shah after his father's assassination in 1896, dies in 1907. His son,
Mohammed Ali Shah, succeeds him. After two years he is deposed and replaced on the throne by his
son, 12-year-old Sultan Ahmed Shah, and a regency.
Persia is divided into three
zones, Russia controls the northern zone, Great Britain the southern zone, and
the Shah of Iran controls the neutral middle zone.
1908 Oil is discovered in Persia
The Young Turk Party leads the Turkish Revolution, demanding restoration of the Ottoman constitution.
1911 Ottoman Turks grant Imam Yahya bin
Muhammad autonomy in Northern Yemen.
1916 British and French negotiate the
Sykes-Picot Agreement which outlines the division of Ottoman-controlled lands
into various French- and British-administered areas. The agreement, implemented
in 1919, contradicts the agreement the British made with the Arabs at the start
of the war, which promised the Arabs independence of what is now Syria,
Palestine (Israel), Jordan, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula.
1918-22 A nationalist movement in Egypt leads to independence. Saad Zaghlul leads a delegation to meet with the British High Commissioner and demand independence. He is refused, and
his deportation spark anti-British riots. The growing
popular support of the nationalistic Wafd Party -- "delegation" -- prompts Britain to grant Egypt limited independence
in Feb 1922 and install a king. Britain, which has served as Egypt's
protectorate since 1914, retains control over government
institutions, the Sudan, and troops in the Suez Canal zone. Egypt will gain full independence
after World War II.
1918-1919 Famine devastates the Persian (Iranian) people. A quarter of the population in
the north of Iran dies.
1919 August 18, Afghanistan declares
its independence from Britain. When King Emir Habibullah Khan is murdered
in Feb, his son Amanullah Khan seizes power, proclaims Afghanistan independent, and attacks British troops in India. The Third
Anglo-Afghan War lasts just one month. Britain agrees to an armistice and
recognizes Afghan independence.
1919-1929 Amanullah Khan rules Afghanistan, instituting reforms and modernization. Afghanistan's first constitution (1923) guarantees civil rights and creates a court system. Amanullah privatizes land, abolishes slavery, and improves educational opportunities for boys and girls. He also seeks to Westernize Afghan culture, overturning centuries-old customs. Conservative tribal and religious leaders resist these changes, however, and call for new leadership.
1919-1929 Amanullah Khan rules Afghanistan, instituting reforms and modernization. Afghanistan's first constitution (1923) guarantees civil rights and creates a court system. Amanullah privatizes land, abolishes slavery, and improves educational opportunities for boys and girls. He also seeks to Westernize Afghan culture, overturning centuries-old customs. Conservative tribal and religious leaders resist these changes, however, and call for new leadership.
1919–21 Franco-Syrian War
1920 San Remo Conference / the Mandate System
Syria and Lebanon are assigned to France.
Palestine and Iraq to Britain.
Transjordan is created from the Palestine Mandate in 1921.
Syria and Lebanon are assigned to France.
Palestine and Iraq to Britain.
Transjordan is created from the Palestine Mandate in 1921.
July - Arabs in Iraq rebel against British rule. Riots break out in what becomes known as the Great Iraqi Revolution. Iraq is placed under British mandate.
October - Iraq elects a new king. A temporary government established, to be assisted by British advisors. Britain had promised Arab independence in exchange for support in WWI, so this was a repayment. Popular support lies with Prince Faisal, who becomes king in 1921. Iraq remains a British mandate until 1932.
1921 Reza Khan takes control of Persia. A Persian army officer, he deposes the Qajar dynasty that had
taken control of the country. He appoints himself Shah in 1925 and seeks to
free Iran from foreign influence; his reign will last until 1941. He resists the strict laws and archaic customs of the religious
mullahs and reduces the influence of the nobles and sheikhs who rule nomadic
tribes. He renames the country Iran in 1935.
1922 Egypt is granted nominal
independence from UK.
July 24 - The League of Nations issues a mandate to Britain to establish a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine.
1922–23 French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon and
British Mandate for Israel come into power, Emirate of Transjordan is an
autonomous region under the Mandate for Israel.
May 15, 1923 - Britain formally recognizes the independent state of Transjordan. Since WWI, the British have divided Transjordan into three districts, with a British "advisor" appointed to each. The British proclaim Emir Abdullah ruler of the three districts, known as Transjordan. On May 15, 1923, Britain formally recognizes the Emirate of Transjordan as a state. The treaty stipulates that Transjordan will be prepared for independence under the general supervision of the British high commissioner in Jerusalem.
October - Republic of Turkey is established. Mustafa Kemal wins unanimous election as the first president . Turkey undergoes Western-style economic, social, and political modernization. Turkey abolishes the offices of its religious head of state (the caliphate) and the courts (the sharia). Separate educational and judicial systems are introduced. The country adopts Sunday as the official weekend holiday (the traditional Muslim day of rest is Friday), as well as the Western calendar.
1923 Oil is discovered in Iraq. The
well produces 80,000 barrels of oil a day.
1925 Sheikh
Said rebellion of Kurds against Turkey
1926 Lebanon, a French mandate,
becomes a semi-autonomous republic. Lebanon, now semiautonomous, adopts a
constitution that will remain in effect, albeit frequently amended, until 1987.
Lebanon will gain full independence from France in 1943.
The Kurdish city of Mosul is
awarded to Iraq, rather than Turkey, by the League of Nations. After WWI, a
proposal is put forth to establish an independent Kurdish state, borrowing land
from the region that now comprises Iraq, Turkey, and Iran to do so. The failure
to pursue that idea further results in the Kurdish issue still in question in
both Iraq and Turkey to the present day.
Secular law replaces
religious law in Turkey.
1927-1929 The
Wahhabi Ikhwan turn against central Arabian ruler ibn Saud. The Ikhwan
"brethren"(Muslims who practice Wahhabism, a puritan form of Islam)
was created by Ibn Saud to help massacre his non-Wahhabi rivals and add Mecca
and the Hejaz region to his domain. He loses his authority over the Ikhwan,
however, when he chooses not to battle rivals who hold protective treaties with
Britain. In 1929, ibn Saud confronts the Ikhwan militarily, and they are forced
to surrender to the British in Kuwait in January 1930. Not all of the Ikhwan
revolt, however, and those who remain loyal to ibn Saud continue to receive
government support and remain an influential religious force. They are
eventually absorbed into the Saudi Arabian National Guard.
1927–30 Ararat rebellion of Kurds, as Republic
of Ararat is declared, but dissolved upon defeat
1928 The Muslim Brotherhood is
founded as an Islamic revivalist movement in Egypt. Founded by Hasan al-Banna, it believes Islam is not only a religious observance, but a way of life. He supplements the traditional Islamic education
with Tarbeyah training for the Society's male students that includes militia-type activities to resist the British occupation. The Brotherhood later becomes involved in
politics and is banned, reinstated, and then banned again in 1954 by the government for its involvement in the attempted assassination of
Nasser. Nasser's successor, Anwar al-Sadat, promises the group that sharia will
be implemented as the Egyptian law and releases all imprisoned Brothers. But in
September 1981, he himself is assassinated by four men in a group known as
Jama'at Al Jihad, after signing a peace treaty with Israel.
1932 September
23 - Abd al-Aziz proclaims the kingdom of Saudi Arabia in unification of Najd
and Hejaz. Having reigned much of Arabia in early 1800s, the al-Saud
family loses part of its territory to the Turks later and is driven from Riyadh
by the rival House of Rashid. In 1902, Abd al-Aziz recaptures the capital city
and begins to reconquer and reunify the country, which he completes some three
decades later. In 1927, Abd al-Aziz is officially proclaimed king, and in 1932
it is named the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
October 3 - Iraq is recognized as an independent monarchy. As previously agreed, Britain terminates its mandate to govern Iraq. Britain maintains a strong presence in Iraq, however. Iraq joins the League of Nations and is officially recognized as a sovereign monarch state. Iraq receives full autonomy after World War II, when British troops complete their withdrawal.
1933 Iraqi King Faisal dies and is
succeeded by his son, Ghazi.
1933–36 Tribal revolts in Iraq of Assyrians in
Simele, Shia in the south and Kurds in the north
1934 Saudi-Yemeni
War
1935 Persia
becomes Iran
1936 Egypt's King Faruq (son of Kng
Fuad) begins his reign. The Wafd Party initially supports the new king and his
nationalistic leanings. Within a year, however, Faruq signs the Anglo-Egyptian
Treaty. Though it brings Egypt closer to full independence, it allows British
forces the right to remain in the Suez Canal zone.
1937 Dersim
rebellion, largest uprising of the Kurds against Turkey, massive casualties
1938 Oil discovered in Saudi Arabia
1939–1945 WWII -
Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre
1941 May - Iraqi prime minister
Rashid Ali attempts a coup, which results in rebellion and an invasion of
British troops. Strong anti-British
sentiment and an increasingly powerful urban nationalist movement come together
to spark Prime Minister Ali's 1941 coup attempt. The coup is ultimately
unsuccessful in ousting the monarchy, but the landing of British forces
completely divorces Iraq's monarchy from the nationalist group.
Aug-Sept - Allied powers invade Iran and force Reza Shah Pahlevi into exile.
Iran declares its neutrality in WWII,
but Britain is upset at Iran's refusal of Allied demands to expel all German
nationals. (Germany had been Iran's largest trading partner.)
After Hitler's invasion of USSR, the Allies desperately need to create a
transportation route across Iran and into the Soviet Union, and on August 26,
Britain and the Soviet Union simultaneously invade Iran. On September 16, with
the collapse of the resistance, Reza Shah Pahlevi abdicates the throne to his
son, Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlevi. Exiled to Mauritius and then to Johannesburg,
South Africa, Reza Shah dies in July 1944.
1942 Britain forces Egypt's King Faruq
to appoint a pro-British prime minister, Mustafa al-Nahhas to head the Egyptian
government. This virtually destroys Faruq's authority. Despite the fact he is
under the pressure of British tanks laying siege to his palace, many
nationalists view Faruq as corrupt and ineffective.
1943 The National Pact divides the
legislative powers of the newly independent Lebanon along sectarian lines. The
Pact, an oral agreement between President Bishara al-Khouri and Prime Minister
Riad al-Sulh, devises a formula for the distribution of seats in parliament
according to population figures derived from the 1932 census. Six seats are
reserved for all Christian sects, and five for all Muslim sects.
1944 January 1 - France grants
Lebanon full independence. France ends the colonial administration it has held
over Lebanon since the end of WWI. Though Lebanon's independence is proclaimed
on November 26, 1941, full independence is realized in stages. France completes
troop evacuation in 1946.
1945 March 22 - Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon,
Syria, Saudi Arabia, Transjordan, and northern Yemen form the Arab League. This
loose affiliation of states favors unity among the Arab people and opposes the
establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. The charter is signed in Cairo.
1946 Emirate
of Transjordan becomes Kingdom of Jordan
April - Syria gains hard-fought independence from the French. Charles de Gaulle promises Syria independence, but demands that its cultural, economic, and strategic interests be protected by treaty before withdrawing its troops. In May 1945, demonstrations take place in Damascus and Aleppo; the French respond by bombing the capital. Only after Winston Churchill, threatens to send troops to Damascus does de Gaulle order a cease-fire. A UN resolution in February 1946 calls on France to evacuate. The French accede, and by April 15, 1946, all French troops have left Syria.
Kurdish Republic of Mahabad declared along with Azerbaijan People's Government, but defeated by Iranian military forces and dissolved. The Kurdish Democratic Party, or KDP, is formed in Iraq. The KDP's primary goal is autonomy in northern Iraq. The organization is founded by Mustafa Barzani.
1947 UN
General Assembly proposes to divide Israel into an Arab and Jewish state
1948 Israel
declares independence and Arab-Israeli war erupts
1951 March
7 - Iranian prime minister Ali Razmara is shot to death. After he advises
against nationalizing the oil industry on technical grounds, he is assassinated
by Khalil Tahmasebi, a member of the terrorist group of the Fadayan-e Islam.
Ultranationalist Mohammed Mossadeq becomes Iranian prime minister following death of Ali Razmara. Before being appointed prime minister, Mossadeq served as a minister and governor in the 1920s. His opposition to the accession of Reza Shah results in imprisonment and later house arrest. Mossadeq returns to parliament in 1941 after Reza Shah is removed from power and replaced by his son, Mohammed Reza Pahlevi.
To prevent foreign interests from controlling the Iranian economy, he nationalizes the oil industry. This move meets with tremendous resistance, especially from the British, who own substantial oil interests. Mossadeq becomes a national hero to many Iranians and gains international prestige -- Time magazine names him Man of the Year for 1951.
1951 December
24 - Libya declares independence under King Idris. Setting the stage for
independence was a 1949 United Nations resolution stating that Libya should
become independent before January 1, 1952. The first country to gain
independence through a UN resolution, Libya had been an Italian colony from the
early 1900s and was then under French and British control in the postwar period
(1945-1951).
1952 Egypt
monarchy overthrown. Gen. Muhammad Naguib establishes Egyptian sovereignty;
King Faruq I formally abdicates. The events are collectively known as the
Egyptian Revolution. Col. Gamal Abd al-Nasser, who leads the nationalist forces
in the coup, ultimately seizes power from Naguib in 1954.
1953 August
- A U.S.-backed coup d'état in Iran removes Mossadeq. British and American intelligence worry that Mossadeq's nationalist
aspirations will lead to a communist takeover. A joint British-American operation overthrows Mossadeq.
At first it appears the coup has failed, and the Shah flees to
Baghdad. Widespread rioting ensues, flamed by the CIA and British intelligence
services, and Mossadeq is defeated. Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlevi returns to
power, and Gen. Fazlollah Zahedi, the leader of military coup, becomes prime
minister.
1953 The Sudan gains independence
from Egypt and Britain. Ending years of Egyptian demands, the British agree to
withdraw from the Sudan. The joint pact, signed in 1953, allows for a
three-year transitional period leading to full independence. Elections are held
late in 1953, and the first republican government takes office in 1954
1954 Nasser
becomes president of Egypt
1954 Central
Treaty Organization
1956 Suez
Crisis
March - Morocco and Tunisia gained independence from France
1957 Jordan revokes the
Anglo-Jordanian treaty. In 1956, Arab nationalism receives a huge boost from
the failed attempt of Britain and France to regain control of the Suez Canal.
Jordan's King Hussein relieves all British commanders of their positions in the
Arab League. In 1957, with Arab nations promising to provide Jordan with enough
money to free it from its dependence on British subsidies, Hussein revokes the
Anglo-Jordanian treaty that had given Jordan full independence from the British
mandate in 1946 in exchange for ongoing British use of military facilities
within Jordan. Troops will fully withdraw from Jordan.
1958 The United Arab Republic, a
union of Egypt and Syria, is formed, with Gamal Abd al-Nasser as its president.
This is designed as a first step toward creating a pan-Arab union. A 1961
military coup in Syria forces the breakup of the UAR, though Egypt continues to
use the name until 1971.
July 14 - Iraq's British-backed
monarch is overthrown in a military coup. King Faisal II is assassinated for
being perceived as too closely aligned with former colonial power Britain. Iraq
is declared a republic, and Gen. Abdel Karim Qasim becomes president. The new
government pursues a foreign policy that is decidedly anti-Western.
July 15 - Lebanon's Christian and Muslim factions engage in civil war. With Egypt and Syria's pan-Arab movement stirring up sentiments among Lebanon's religious groups, Lebanon's fragile coalition government weakens. The Lebanese army's loyalty to President Kamil Shamun wavers. With the outbreak of civil war between Christians and Muslims, Shamun calls on the U.S. to send troops to secure peace. The U.S., wanting to avoid another coup (as had just occurred in Iraq), sends 5,000 Marines to Lebanon.
1960 OPEC is formed (Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Venezuela)
1961 First
Kurdish-Iraqi War erupts in north Iraq.
The White Revolution in Iran: Reza
Shah Pahlevi dissolves Iran's legislative body and suspends its constitution.
The Shah's suspension of the constitution and his dissolution of the
legislature free him to proceed with his plan for modernization, which has been
opposed by religious conservatives in the Majlis. The Shah abolishes the
practice of sharecropping, nationalizes dwindling forests, gives women voting
rights, and starts a massive rural literacy program.
As Britain ends its protectorate
in Kuwait, Iraq threatens to claim its neighbor for its own. After Kuwait gains
its independence from Britain on June 19, President Abdel Karim Qasim of Iraq
asserts a longstanding Iraqi claim to Kuwait. Kuwait seeks and receives British
military support, which in the end is not needed, as Iraq does not launch an
offensive. Iraq never formally withdraws its claim, however, and in 1990
invades Kuwait and claims it as Iraq's 19th province.
1962 Algeria fights its War of
Independence against the French. Algeria fights a long and bloody war before it
reclaims its independence from France in 1962. More than 500,000 from both
sides die in the conflict.
Civil war erupts when the Yemen Arab Republic
is established in the north. When army officers in the north overthrow the new
imam, Muhammad al-Badr, the Yemen Arab Republic is established. Civil war
ensues. The republicans are backed by Egypt and the Soviet Union, and the
imam's supporters are backed by Saudi Arabia and Britain.
1963 President
Qasim of Iraq is ousted in a coup led by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party. Ba'th
Party comes to power in Iraq under Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr and Abdul Salam Arif. The
Ba'ath Party, upset with the President Qasim's dictatorial rule, joins forces
with the military to force him out of power. Col. Abd al-Salam Muhammad Arif
becomes president and rules until his untimely death in a helicopter crash nine
months later.
1964 Abdul
Rahman Arif stages military coup in Iraq against the Ba'th Party and brings his
brother, Abdul Salam Arif, to power
PLO is formed
Critical of the Shah's new
Western-influenced policies, Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini is exiled to Turkey.
1966 Iraqi president Abd al-Salam
Muhammad Arif dies in a helicopter crash. He is succeeded by older brother, Abd
al-Rahman Arif.
1967 Six-Day
War, Israel occupies the Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights, West Bank and Gaza
Strip
Kurds revolt in Western Iran, the
revolt is crushed
President Nasser of Egypt resigns
in response to Egypt's military defeat by Israel in the Six-Day War. Popular
demand, however, quickly compels him to resume his post.
Southern Yemen gains independence
from Britain. It accepts Soviet economic aid to stay afloat, becoming the first
and only Marxist Arab state. It’s in economic shambles with the closure of the
Suez Canal following the Six-Day War and the loss of British trade.
1968 Ba'athists
stage second military coup under General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, Saddam Hussein
is made vice president of Iraq. A Ba'athist-led coup ousts President Arif of
Iraq. Following the Ba'athist coup, Gen. Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr becomes president
of Iraq. The country's political system enjoys relative stability over the next
10 years. Money from oil exports contributes to an economic boom. Between 1972
and 1975, annual oil revenues increase from $1 billion to $8.2 billion.
Yasser Arafat is
elected chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization.
1969 President Salim Rubayi Ali
succeeds Qahtan al-Shabi, who is overthrown by the Marxist National Liberation
Front, in Southern Yemen. Ali. The following year the country is renamed the
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen, and during Ali's rule, most of the
economy is placed under government control.
Revolutionary leader Col. Muammar
al-Qaddafi takes power of Libya in a military coup. Qaddafi creates his own
political system, the Third International Theory, as an alternative to
capitalism and communism. It is a combination of socialism and Islam. From this
point on on, all aspects of Libyan life will be controlled by Qaddafi. He
declares a jamahariyya (government of the masses) and calls for political,
legal, and social changes in accord with his "green book."
1970 Nasser
dies, Anwar Sadat becomes president of Egypt
Northern Yemen's eight-year civil
war ends. Imam Muhammad al-Badr, Northern Yemen's leader, is exiled to Britain.
A new government established by the republicans lasts only four years before
army leaders seize control and steer the country in a conservative direction.
March 11 - Kurdish autonomy is
proclaimed in Iraq. Signed by Iraq's Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) and
Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) leader Mullah Mustafa Barzani, the Iraqi
government and the Kurds agree to the creation of a Kurdish autonomous region
within the next four years. Although the RCC issues decrees in 1974 and '75
that provide for its administration, these terms are not acceptable to all
Kurdish leaders, and a major war ensues. By 1988 the Kurds are defeated.
Guerrilla activities, however, continue to this day in parts of Kurdistan.
1971 The
Aswan High Dam is completed with Soviet help;
Independence of Kuwait, Qatar,
Bahrain and the UAE
1973 Yom
Kippur War
1974 The
PLO is allowed to represent the people of Israel in the UN
1974–1975 -
Second Kurdish-Iraqi War
1975 King Faisal of Saudi Arabia is
assassinated by a nephew and succeeded by his brother, Khalid.
1975–90 - Lebanese Civil War. One cause is a power
imbalance between dominant right-wing Christian population and the growing
Muslim population who feels excluded from government. Second is the
Arab-Israeli conflict, with Israel's support for the Lebanese Christian groups,
and increasing PLO attacks on Israel from Lebanese bases. In the summer of 1975
full-scale civil war breaks out between the Muslim coalition allied with
Palestinian groups and the Christian-dominated militias. In April 1976, an
uneasy cease-fire is imposed when Syrian military forces intervene at the
request of the Lebanese president and with the approval of the Arab League of
States. Violence continues, and in 1978 Israel invades southern Lebanon in an
attempt to eliminate Palestinian bases. By mid-1981, 53 private armies are
operating in Lebanon. Cease-fire efforts by the U.S. and others have fleeting
impact. Political assassinations, civilian massacres, and kidnappings continue,
including a 1983 attack on the U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut. Following one of
many cease-fires, a plan is formed at a conference in Taif, Saudi Arabia,
calling for a new constitution increasing Muslim representation and accepting a
special Syrian relationship. By late 1990, the civil war is at an end. Since
then, Hezbollah rocket attacks, alternating with Israeli air strikes and a 1996
Israeli incursion, has kept the situation fluid in southern Lebanon. Both sides
hope to end the combat, but neither will compromise on a demand for Israeli
withdrawal from the Golan Heights.
1976 Syria
invades Lebanon
1977 Kurdish
is recognized as an official language in Iraq.
1978 Camp
David Accords
Ali Abdullah Saleh is
elected president and embraces a Western-style market economy for Northern
Yemen. While Northern Yemen practices a market economy, Southern Yemen's
economy is controlled by the state. Saleh will rule for two decades before
being declared senile and removed from power.
"Black Friday" occurs in
Iran as Mohammed Reza Shah imposes martial rule to put an end to violent
antigovernment demonstrations. From mid-1978, demonstrations against the Shah's
policies of Westernization and authoritarian rule are reaching an unprecedented
level. Cities are placed under martial law, but people flood the streets to
defy the Shah. During one demonstration, soldiers are ordered to shoot. More
than 600 people are killed in Zhaleh Square alone. This day becomes known as
Black Friday, and the square's name is later changed to the Square of Martyrs.
1979 Saddam
Hussein becomes president of Iraq. Iraqi president Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr resigns
his position citing health reasons. Vice President Saddam Hussein succeeds him
as president and chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). One year
later, Hussein leads Iraq into a bloody war with the new Islamic Republic of
Iran that will last for almost a decade.
Iranian Revolution. The Shah is
overthrown. Dissent and demonstrations protesting the dictatorship of the Shah
increase in Iran. The writings of the exiled Ayatollah Khomeini, Shii Muslim
Supreme Leader, begin to circulate widely. Throughout the final months of the
1978, demonstrators seize government buildings, shut down businesses with
massive strikes, and assassinate government officials. On January 16, 1979, the
Shah flees Iran; Ruhollah Khomeini returns on Feb 1. On February 12, the prime
minister flees as well. The Islamic Revolutionary Council is formed, and the
country is declared the Islamic Republic of Iran on April 1. Khomeini and his
supporters blame the Shah and Western influences for oppressing Iran and
corrupting Iranian Islamic traditions. Under Khomeini, law codes based on Islam
are introduced in Iran, ending the Shah's radical modernization policies.
Khomeini's strict version of Islamic religious standards become the law of
everyday life. Some Iranians are upset by the strict religious system. Many people
who accepted Western cultural influences leave Iran, including most Jews and
Christians. The "Islamicization" of the government continues into the
21st century.
Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty
Soviet military invades and
occupies Afghanistan, beginning a decade-long conflict. The Soviet Union
invades Afghanistan in an effort to stabilize its government and support
socialism. The conflict lasts 10 years and is often referred to as the Soviet
Union's Vietnam. Seventy thousand Soviet soldiers will die in the course of the
conflict.
1980 March - The Iraqi National Assembly is formed. Members
are elected to four-year terms. All members must demonstrate loyalty to the
Ba'ath Party and Saddam Hussein. Iraq had no national legislature between 1958
and 1980.
April 8 – Muhammad Baqir
al-Sadr, an Islamist, a key figure in the Iraqi Dawa Party, a scholar and
proponent of Islamic government, is executed by the Iraqi government, is
executed by Saddam Hussein's government. He had advocated the establishment of
Iraq as an Islamic state. His sister, fellow activist and novelist Amina Sadr,
is also killed. All political opponents of Saddam Hussein's regime risk a
similar fate.
September 22 – Iraq invades Iran. Though
the reasons behind the war are complex, border skirmishes and a dispute over
rights to the Shatt al-Arab waterway contribute to the warfare. Iraq seizes
thousands of square miles and several important oil fields. Over an eight-year
period, more than 500,000 Iraqis and Iranians die, with neither side able to
claim victory.
1980–1989 Iran–Iraq War results in 1–1.25 million
casualties, Iraq uses chemical weapons against Iran and rebel Kurds; large
scale economical devastation and surge in oil prices affect the global world
economy
1981 October
6 –Islamists assassinate President Anwar al-Sadat of Egypt. Anwar al-Sadat's
conflicts with Islamic groups in Egypt (including a crackdown that led to the
arrest of more than 1,500 people) as well as enduring anger over the peace
treaty he signed with Israel lead to his assassination. Hosni Mubarak succeeds
him as president.
1982 February – Syrian forces
suppress a Muslim Brotherhood uprising in Hama, killing 10,000 to 30,000
people. In 1976, the arch-conservative Muslim Brotherhood leads an armed
insurgency against the al-Asad regime, which is criticized for being secular
and representing only minority interests. This particular public demonstration
is met with heavy artillery fire and ends in massive casualties.
1982 Israel
invades Lebanon
1984 Kurdish terrorists in Turkey
begin a bloody campaign for independence. The Kurdistan Workers' Party, founded
in 1978, launches a campaign of terror designed to win independence for the
ethnic Kurdish people living primarily in southeastern Turkey. Between 1984 and
1998, an estimated 20,000 to 40,000 people die in clashes between Turkish
troops and Kurdish militants and civilians.
1986 Civil war breaks out in Southern
Yemen as a Marxist clash with the government of Southern Yemen.
November – The arms-for-hostages
deal that comes to be known as the Iran-Contra Affair comes to light. After a
week of denying any covert activities, U.S. president Ronald Reagan publicly
confirms that the U.S. secretly sold arms to Iran, using Israel as an
intermediary, with the goal of improving relations with Iran. Reagan later
admits the arrangement had become a swap -- arms assistance in return for
hostages in Lebanon. The American public is outraged by the dealings with a
hostile Iran, as well as with Reagan himself, for breaking his campaign promise
to never enter into such negotiations. Some of the arms profits are later
discovered to have been diverted to illegally aid Nicaraguan Contra rebels, who
are locked in combat with the Communist-backed Sandinistas.
1987–1990 First Intifada
1988 Iraq uses chemical weapons
against the Kurds. The Kurdish areas of northern Iraq have long been in
conflict with the Baghdad regime. In the Kurdish town of Halabjah, Iraq
unleashes chemical weapons, killing between 50,000 and 100,000 people.
July – King Hussein of
Jordan severs political links with the PLO and orders its main offices closed.
August – UN secretary-general
Javier Perez de Cuellar announces a cease-fire between Iran and Iraq, ending
the Iran-Iraq War. The cease-fire ends eight years of war between Iran and
Iraq. The Iraqis now turn their attention to the Kurdish population, many of
whom had supported Iran. Thousands of Kurds flee Iraq for refuge in Turkey.
1989 Osama bin Laden founds the
al-Qaeda network. Meaning "the base," al-Qaeda grows out of the
network of Arab volunteers who had gone to Afghanistan in the 1980s to fight
the Soviets under the banner of Islam. Its creation coincides with the Soviets'
withdrawal from Afghanistan. The charismatic bin Laden uses the contacts he had
made there to organize this international group of motivated Islamic radicals.
Since 1996, al-Qaeda has been headquartered in Afghanistan, where bin Laden was
able to forge a close relationship with the ruling Taliban. Al-Qaeda, however,
is thought to operate in 40 to 50 countries, not only in the Middle East and
Asia but also in North America and Europe. A loosely knit group, it operates
across continents as a chain of interlocking networks comprising different
groups, or "cells." While bin Laden is the founder and leader of
al-Qaeda, Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri is regarded as the mastermind of many of
its most infamous operations, including the attacks on two U.S. embassies in
Africa in 1998 and the September 11 attacks against New York and Washington.
June 4 – Ayatollah Khomeini
of Iran dies and is succeeded by Ali Khameini.
Some two million Iranians attend the Ayatollah Khomeini's funeral in
Tehran in 1989. Thousands of mourners are injured in the chaos. After
Khomeini's death, Ali Khameini becomes ayatollah, Iran's chief religious leader.
1990 North and south Yemen reunite
after nearly a decade of trying. The formation of the Republic of Yemen ends
centuries of tribal and religious squabbles and signals the end of absolute
rule. A democratic system of government based on popular elections, freedom of
speech, and an independent judiciary is installed.
1990 Iraq's invasion of Kuwait is
triggered in part because of Iraq's inability to repay more than $20 billion in
loans to Kuwait, but also because of other issues related to historical border
disputes. By a vote of 14-0, the UN Security Council condemns the invasion and
demands unconditional withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait. On August 6, the
UN imposes sanctions on Iraq, ending all trade with the aggressor nation. A
U.S.-led coalition forms to forcibly remove Iraq from Kuwait. The Persian Gulf
War will cost $8.1 billion and 383 U.S. lives before it ends in March 1991.
King Fahd invites U.S.-led troops
to use Saudi Arabia as a base of operations against Iraq. After Saddam
Hussein's invasion of Kuwait, King Fahd fears his kingdom will be Saddam's next
target, and does not hesitate to host U.S. troops on Saudi soil.
Saudi Arabia sends 600,000 Yemeni
workers home over Persian Gulf sentiments. Many Yemenis had long sought work in
Saudi Arabia, as Yemen produces few goods for export and depends on jobs
outside the country for good wages. When the Yemeni government calls for an
"Arab solution" to the conflict in the Gulf and insists on Western
troop withdrawal from the region, Saudi Arabia orders Yemeni workers home. The
Yemeni workforce and the country's economy suffer greatly as a result.
The Taif Accord balances power in
Lebanon's executive branch between Christians and Muslims, ending the 25-year
civil war. The Charter of Lebanese National Reconciliation, or the Taif Accord,
is signed into law. It establishes a more representative executive branch based
on recent estimates of the population. A half-Christian, half-Muslim Cabinet
assumes many of the powers of the president, and the Muslim prime minister is
given powers more equitable to those of the Christian president.
1991 The
Gulf War. A U.S.-led military coalition, with support from key Muslim states,
fights to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Following the Iraqi invasion of
Kuwait in August 1990, the United States, the former Soviet Union, Japan, and
much of Europe and the Middle East condemn the attack and resolve to drive the
invaders out in Jan. Of note, Turkey, the sole Muslim member of NATO, allows
the U.S. to use its territory as a staging point for strikes on Iraq during the
Persian Gulf War. Saudi Arabia does likewise. Some 100,000 Iraqis are killed in
the war, with relatively few reported coalition casualties. Though his army is
forced to surrender, Iraqi president Saddam Hussein does not relinquish power. In Feb, Kuwait is liberated from Iraq by
coalition forces led by the U.S. Coalition ground operations begin and last
only three days before occupying Iraqi troops are expelled from Kuwait.
The Iraqi army kills 50,000 Kurds
and Shii Muslims. The Iraqi army suppresses an uprising of Kurds in the north
and Shii Muslims in southern Iraq. More than a million Kurds flee to Turkey and
Iran.
1992 May 9 – Iraqi Kurds elect a
regional parliament and establish their own government.
1993 Oslo
Accords
June – Ali Akbar Hashemi
Rafsanjani is elected president of Iran. Iran's president, prime minister, and
Cabinet ministers do not have independent decision-making power. They answer to
the spiritual leader and to a group of religious scholars appointed by the
spiritual leader. A legislature, appointed by the people every four years,
makes laws in keeping with Islam. A council made up of six lawyers and six
clergy oversee this legislature.
1994 - 1994
civil war in Yemen. Supporters of the president, a northerner, and those of the
vice president, a southerner, clash. The president's troops win out, and he
retains control over the republic.
1995 The U.S. imposes oil and trade
sanctions against Iran. The U.S. imposes oil and trade sanctions on Iran for
allegedly sponsoring terrorism, seeking to acquire nuclear arms, and promoting
hostility to the Israeli-Palestinian peace process. Iran denies the charges.
35000 Turkish troops are sent to
fight Kurdish rebels in Iraq. A civil war between Kurds and Turks has been
going on for years. As a result, many Kurds have fled Turkey for Iraq, where
Kurdish guerrillas continue to enter Turkey. The Turks' invasion, called
Operation Steel, backfires, as only 158 Kurdish rebels are killed in the first
week.
1996 May – Islamic fundamentalist
Osama bin Laden is welcomed by the ruling Taliban in Afghanistan. Hailed as a
hero for his involvement against the Soviets in the 1980s, the Islamic militia
in power offers Osama bin Laden support and safety within Afghan borders.
A coup attempt against
Iraqi president Saddam Hussein fails. Saddam Hussein's elder son, Uday, is
seriously wounded in an assassination attempt against the president in
Baghdad's al-Mansur district.
1997 Iranian voters elect Mohammed
Khatami president. He campaigns for president for just two weeks on a platform
emphasizing return to the rule of law and restoration of civil society. Almost
immediately, police stop hassling women for improper dress, and bolder women
start wearing their head scarves further back on the head, showing more of
their hair. Newspapers report freely about the government.
1998 Conservatives in Iran react with
hostility to some of the changes occurring under President Mohammed Khatami. Political
dissidents and intellectuals are killed. President Khatami orders an
investigation of the murders. That the investigation takes place at all proves
to be one of Khatami's biggest successes. The Ministry of Intelligence and
Security determines that its own members committed the murders.
August 7 - U.S. embassies in
Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, are bombed simultaneously. Four
men are tried for the simultaneous bombings in Africa, which killed 224 people
and wounded thousands. Charges include conspiring in the bombing and other acts
of terrorism as part of Osama bin Laden's international organization, al-Qaeda.
All four are convicted in May 2001 and sentenced to life in prison without
parole on October 18, 2001.
2000 Israeli
troops leave Lebanon
2001 9/11
December 7 - Afghan
opposition forces conquer Kandahar, effectively ending Taliban authority. In
previous weeks, the first major incursion of U.S. ground troops had landed near
Kandahar, the last major city under Taliban control, to support Afghans
fighting Taliban and al-Qaeda forces. A series of U.S. air strikes opens the
way for the anti-Taliban forces to take control of the city.
2002 Hamid Karzai is elected head of
Afghanistan's Transitional Authority by the emergency loya jirga, or grand
council. The loya jirga, a centuries-old political institution made up of
representatives of Afghan society, convenes in Kabul to restore the Afghan
government. For the first time in Afghan history, women are allowed to
participate. It is decided that free and fair elections will be held within two
years.
2003 Iraq
War
2004-present Shia insurgency in Yemen
2005 Syrian
troops leave Lebanon as a result of the Cedar Revolution
2006 The
2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict; Saddam Hussein executed for "crimes against
humanity"
2010-present -
Arab Spring, which culminates in the Syrian Civil War with involvement of many
regional powers to either support the Syrian opposition or the ruling Ba'ath
party
